1-Can anyone explain metonomy with examples?

1- Metonymy: There are some common definitions for this term in many resources, however the one I like “metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is associated”. One of the well-known examples is the use such as the phrases “The tension between Ankara and Athens” This is a good example of
metonymy, with the term "Ankara actually referring to the authorities who are symbolized by the term “Ankara”,which is an inanimate object that says nothing. The Big Apple for New York or The Crown for a kingdom are other examples of this kind of metonymy. Also,if a sexist young man refers to a woman as a "skirt," he is using metonymy.
As another example we can say that in a sports news article the phrase ``Turkey defeats England.'', “Turkey”might refer metonymically to the members of the Turkish national football team. Similarly It is extremely common for people to take one well-understood or easy-to-perceive aspect of something and use that aspect to stand either for the thing as a whole or for some other aspect or part of it. For example, The pen is mightier than the sword. "Pen" represent publishing and "sword", military force here. 
In short, you use a word to represent the whole and you use one part of this whole as the concept. For example if you say “library on wheels” you use “wheels” here to represent a vehicle, a lorry or a minibus etc. In your book the examples “answering the door and filling up a car should be clear now to you. You do not fill up the whole car, but only its tank and you don’t answer the door, which would be meaningless in literal sense. 

2-Also please explain gradable atonym, non - gradable antonym and recursive with example which show the differences between them!

2- Gradable and nongradable antonyms: The most important point to consider while distinguishing between these two types of antonyms is to test the adjective using comperative structure. If you can use comperative structure with an adjective it is “gradable”. For example you can compare things by grading them according to their length. One passage may be longer than another and another may be longer than this. You can grade them in order. However for the non-gradable antonym this is not the case. For example “single/married”. One can be only one of them and there is no structure such as “more single or “less married”. If a person is not “married” he/she is “single”. Other examples of nongradable antonyms are “alive-dead” “male-female” as in your book and awake-asleep. In short there are no degree of “maleness and femaleness” and also of “deadness and aliveness. Reversives denote the oppsite of the action done and they are mostly verbs such as “rise/fall,
enter/exit do/undo and go up >< go down

3-One more request,please explain the difference between deep and superficial structures!

3- Deep and surface structure: Dear Zühal, the best example to explian these concepts are to give example of passive and active structure. When we say “john break the window” and “the window was broken by John” refers to the same action with two different focus. In both sentences the result is the same: a broken window. This result is the “deep structure” in our minds. However there are two different “surface structures”; one is passive and the other is active structure. In other words, surface structure is mostly related with syntax; the grammatical structure. You can represent one deep structure with various surface structures.. Thank you for your mini test, I think your friend will enjoy it.

4-ONE MORE REQUEST TOO, PLEASE EXPLAIN THE COLLOCATIONS WITH EXAMPLES!

4- Collocation is the relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a common expression. If the expression is heard often, the words become 'glued' together in our minds. 'nuclear family' and 'cosmetic surgery' are examples of collocated pairs of words. Some words are often found together because they make up a compound noun, for example 'riding boots' or 'motor cyclist'. We also have collocations in Turkish. For example when we think about “çay”, which words can you think that goes with this particular word? Yes “bardak” “dem” “demlemek” etc. Such words you think of are the collocations of “çay” in Turkish. In other words, “çay demlemek”, “demli çay” of “çay bardağı” all commonly used together.

Student answer:AS FAR AS I HAVE UNDERSTOOD METONYMY IS THAT AN EASY-TO-PERCEIVE ASPECT OF STH IS USED TO REPLACE THE WHOLE! 
EX: BLACKS HATE WHITES. 'BLACK REPLACES NEGRO AND WHITE REPLACES PEOPLE HAVING WHITE SKIN!' IS IT TRUE?
AS FAR AS I HAVE UNDERSTOOD GRADABLE ANTONYMS AND UNGRADABLE ANTONYMS ARE THAT IF I CAN GRADE ADJECTIVES BY USING COMPARATIVE THESE ADJECTIVES ARE GRADABLE ANTONYMS .IF NOT, THESE ARE UNGRADABLE ANTONYMS. EX: BEAUTIFUL-UGLY ANTONYMS ARE GRADABLE BECAUSE THESE
ADJECTIVES ARE USED IN COMPARATIVE FORMS: MORE BEAUTIFUL- UGLIER . ALSO THESE WORDS ARE OPTIONAL AS EMÝNE HAS SAID. NAMELY THEY CAN BE GRADED DIFFERENTLY BY PEOPLE! 
SON - DAUGHTER ARE UNGRADABLE ANTONYMS BECAUSE THESE AREN'T USED IN COMPORATIVE FORMS. SONNER -MORE DAUGHTER. ALSO, REVERSIVES ARE OPPOSITE VERBS IN TERMS OF THE ACTION DONE. EX:STAND X SIT 
AS FAR AS I HAVE UNDERSTOOD COLLOCATION IS THAT THESE ARE THE WORDS WHICH ARE TOGETHER! NAMELY , THESE ARE UNSPERATABLE PAIRS:) WHEN PEOPLE SEE ONE OF THEM ON A PAPER THEY CAN WRITE THE OTHER PAIR EASILY. 
EX: THINK A FILLING THE BLANK QUESTION IN A VOCABULARY TEST '_______ KEBAP. THE WORD WHICH SHOULD BE WRITTEN IN THE BLANK IS 'KEBAB'. BECAUSE 'ADANA KEBAB'
IS A COLLOCATION. AS FAR AS I HAVE UNDERSTOOD SURFACE STRUCTURE IS SYNTACTICAL STRUCTURE WHILE DEEP STRUCTURE IS THE RESULT OF THE SENTENCE : THE MAIN MEANING. EX: ZERRıN CLEANED THE WINDOWS. 
THE WINDOWS WERE CLEANED BY ZERRÝN. THESE WORDS ARE SUPERFICIAL STRUCTURE ( ACTIVE – PASSIVE SENTENCES) THE RESULT: THE MAIN MEANING IS 'CLEANED WINDOWS'. THIS IS DEEP STRUCTURE! 
 Teacher answer:You are marvellous. You summarized the points very clearly, even better than me. All of them are correct. 

A MINI TEST 1- ARE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS: TRUE OR FALSE

a- The first type of grammar 'mental grammar' is ýnterested in sociologist since it has to do with people's social attitudes and values.

b- '*' refers to ungrammatical sentence.

c-NP consýsts of only article,noun, and adjective.

d- 'Zerrin feels good' in this statement 'Zerrin' is experiencer.

2- which of the following expressions would be generated the phrase structure rule given below? VP->V PRO PP NP

a- saw him in the kitchen

b-love her deeply in his childhood

c-replied the question quickly

d-looked at the birth silently

3-please label the following sentences in a hierarchy way.

I WATCHED A HORROR FILM LAST NIGHT.

SHE KNOWS THAT CANER WILL LOVE HER FOREVER.

Polysemy means 'multiple meanings'. A knife can be sharp.A mind that has been trained is also said to be "sharp". A person who speaks incisively, directly,
and abruptly is "sharp tongued'. A word then is polysemous if it has two or more extended meanings whose extensions differ somewhat but which clearly share a
common semantic core.
Homophonous words have identical sounds but entirely different meanings, not sharing a core of the same meaning English "tense" verb form that shows the time of the action / or being nervous or worried are examples of homophony. They have different lexical entries in the dictionary.
I’d like to make some contribution about the subject polysemy and homonymy.
As stated in your coursebook (p 121, paragraph four: ‘Of course ...), one word might have uses of both homonymy and polysemy.
I'd like to given another example from a dictionary,Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. If you look up the word ‘bank’, you can see three different entries:
bank  (1) noun 1-place where money is kept safely. 2- place for storing supplies: a blood bank
bank  (2) noun 1- land sloping up beside a river, etc. 2- mound of sloping land. 3- mass of snow, clouds,etc. 
bank  verb (of an aircarft) to travel with one side higher than the other while travelling.
bank (3) noun 1- row or series of similar objects: a bank of switches. 
Homonymy : In the examples above, these three different entires (look at the numbers in parentheses)are homonyms. The first group of words are related to ‘storing’ and ‘place.’ The second group of words are related to ‘sloping,’ that is, one side or end being higher than the other one. The last entry is related to being a ‘set’ of things. Certainly, different dicitonaries might have different number of entires, but pay attention to the reasong of these divisions. Relatedness is the keyword. In the examples above, entries 1, 2, and 3 are unrelated, and therefore, are homonyms. 
Polysemy:In entry 1 above, two seperate definitions which are similar in meaning are given. As I said earlier, the idea is related to ‘storing’ and ‘place.’ Therefore, we can say that these two words can be treated as polysemous.
Now, can you give some Turkish examples (e.g. the word ‘goz’)? 
If you treat the adressee personally and make him feel that you are superior than him, that is called a face-threatening act. It often involves direct requests or namely commands when you want to be efficient or urgent.( e.g. Do this!)
Face – saving act is more polite. It sounds more like a request rather than a command. The inferior addresses seem more superior. ( e.g. Do you mind ............. ?
or / Could you possibly.......? )
Deep structure represents the underlying meaning.Surface structure represents what we speak and hear. 
(1) The girl kissed the boy.
(2) The boy was kissed by the girl.
These two sentences have 1 deep structure and 2 surface structures.They have one deep structure because both sentences convey the same meaning.They have 2 surface structures as the sentence (1) is active and the sentence (2) is passive.
Some sentences can have 2 deep structures if they are ambiguous .
(3) Visiting relatives can be a nuisance.
The sentence (3) has 2 different deep structures as it is ambiguous and it can convey two different meanings.
I tried to explain what D(eep) Structure means. Back in the days of Transformational Grammar, linguists noticed that it was not sufficient to cover all rules of the grammar with Phrase Structure Rules. For example, you could not explain the relationship between the following pairs of sentences: 
Someone bought my house- My house was bought. She came on time. Did she come on time? She ate an apple. What did she eat? 
All the sentences in the second column, namely My house was bought. Did she come on time? What did she eat? Are believed to derive from the sentences in the first column. 
Phrase structure rules cannot explain the sentences in the second column. Therefore, linguists thought that they derived from the sentences in the first column so that first sentences are D-Structures of the sentences which have undergone transformations. 
Homonymy is observed when one word has different unrelated meanings. For ezample a homonym from Turkish is YÜZ 
Ali havuzda yuz-du. Can'in yuz-u solgun gorunuyor. 
 
Polysemy refers again to one form-different meanings.This time however, there is a relationship between the meanings. In homonymy, the word has totally separate meanings. 
An example of polysemy would be insanin ayagi, masanin ayagi. 
 
I understand your disillusionment on obtaining two different answers on your question about hyponymy and polysemy from two different instructors. 
I would like you students to know that there may be no one single truth in scientific research. One philosophical stand suggests that truth can never be known directly and in its totality. There may be different ways of interpreting data; also there may be
multiple ways of seeing result in multiple truths. So, we should tolerate ambiguity in scientific research as Ayla Hoca wrote in the introduction part of the supplementary material Ayla Hoca and I prepared for your SLA course. Remember that there are different theories that address different facts on the language acquisition process. These theories may try to complete the shortcomings of one theory. Likewise, researchers
observe different facts that they try to account for. Alternatively, they may have different suggestions for the same facts. 
It is argued by philosophy of science that ultimate truth is only approximated but can hardly be reached.That is why even in published works there may be different interpretations on the same facts,controversial discussions, disagreements about the same or similar phenomena even in natural sciences, let alone humanities such as linguistics. In a nutshell,researchers may not always agree or they may not always
reach the same conclusions. 
In my classes at the Faculty of Education, I tell my students that we are trying to uncover facts that are not clear and straightforward. I tell them the story about the five blind researchers who try to investigate an elephant. One of these researchers touches the tooth of the elephant and she says that it is a stone-like element. The other touches the elephant’s leg and he proposes that it a tree trunk. Yet another researcher likens the tail of the elephant to sth. else, etc. They are all telling the truth from their own perspectives and yet they are not necessarily describing the huge
elephant. Facts are like huge elephants; researchers are like blind people. With their all good intention, they are trying to describe facts. 
Thus, bearing these in mind, please stop reminiscing your good old high school days when you were expected to memorize the information you were presented and explain this back in your exams. Now, it is time to start thinking critically. This is how science and technology progress in the history of human kind. 
Neither Barıs Hoca nor I myself are incompetent linguists. On the contrary, we have studied linguistics for a long time, and we still are. We do research in the field. However, even very good linguists may sometimes disagree on even simple facts of language. 
The point here is that we as instructors are always trying to be fair when we are preparing the test questions. We have very good intuitions on what may be difficult for you to understand and what constitutes controversy. As a result, we would never ask you
questions on issues that may be controversial. Therefore, you try to obtain a very good understanding of the way in which linguistics, and science in general,works. 
You are entitled to be critical in your thinking and evaluating the information you are presented in your courses. Nonetheless, in so doing, nobody has any right to be judgmental and overreactive. 
 
The distinction between homonymy and polysemy is not always clear-cut. 
But again, in homonymy, the meanings are not related;while in polysemy they are related. 
Quantity: This maxim can be summarized as the amount of your speech. You have to speak as much as you’re asked,that is, do not bore the listeners with unnecessary details. If I tell you that these maxims were first formed by Grice in 1975 while answering your question,I’ll be violating this maxim cos you don’t need to know this specific detail to fully understand what this maxim means. 
Quality: This one tells us to say only the things that we believe or know to be true or false. In other words,speak about subjects that you know for sure, and if you are unsure about something, let the listener know that what you’re saying is not a real fact by including expressions such as “as far as I know…., I’m not sure,but…..,”, or modal auxiliaries like “may, might,can,…etc.” 
Relation: What Grice meant by maxim of relation—by the way he was born in 1913, and died in 1988, and he held positions at Oxford University and the University of California—is that the information the speaker provides has to be related to the topic. The italicized sentences above are truly behind the lines of this maxim. The information I gave about Grice is not related to what you asked. 
Manner: I guess this maxim is a self-explanatory one.During a conversation, speakers should communicate clearly (causing no misunderstandings) and briefly. If someone asks you “how are you?”, you shouldn’t answer like “Well, to tell you the truth, I’m not very sure about my physical health at the moment, but I guess I’m alright mentally, and I suppose a short rest may make me sure about my physical health, what I mean, I’m fine,
but a little tired”. Saying only the italicized part would be more suitable in terms of maxim of manner.
 
Script and Schema
You are asking one of your friends why s/he talked very short on the phone when you called, and the answer is “I was at the hospital when you called”. As soon as you hear the sentence, you stop complaining because you have some information about hospitals. Every normal person knows that keeping as quiet as possible at hospitals is a requirement of courtesy. Why? Since, you have a picture of hospital in your mind, you can easily imagine that it’s a place crowded with ill people moaning and groaning, and doctors & nurses around. You can even feel the odd smell. This is what you know about hospitals,and whenever you hear the word “hospital” you can easily conjure up the place. So, schema can be said to be a mental picture of something. 
Script is actually very close to schema in meaning. The only difference is that it involves motion. Remember the examples of your book like “going to…., eating….”. all these examples include moving. For example, you know that a certain brand gives free cans of coke if you can find the mark “You Win” in the lids. You buy a can of coke from a market, you open the lid, and it says “Try Again” in the lid. What would you do? Would you just close the lid and open AGAIN, or would you understand that you need to buy another coke to win one can for free. How do you know this? Answer lies in your world knowledge. This is what script is. 
Schema is a stable mental picture of a place about where everybody has some background information whereas script is a set of certain movements that everybody has some background information. 
 
You know the clue to figure out if a word is homo or poly is to look it up in the dictionary. But, this seems to be not adequate. Because, I checked the word “book”
in two dictionaries (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English & Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary), and I found three different entries. According to the information you’re given, the word “book” looks like a homo, however, in my point of
view, it’s definitely a good example of poly. How? Let’s see. Most of the dictionaries create new entries according to parts of speech rather than a totally different meaning. So, “book” has three forms; noun,adjective, and verb, which makes us think that it’s a
homonym. But, if you consider the meanings of all entries, you’ll see all meanings relate to each other closely. As a noun; a set of sheets (either printed or blank) of skin or paper or tablets of wood or ivory (Webster’s dictionary), as an adjective; derived from books, and not from practical experience, and as a verb;to register for some future activity or condition. 
Considering the noun form as the basis, the verb and adjective forms can be stated to be directly related to the noun. If you speak “book English”, for example,you’ll be speaking what’s in the book not in life. So,here book, as an adjective, means relating to a real book. If you “book” for a flight, practically you are asking people to write your name down in a real book (which is the list of passengers). If you’re booked
because of speeding, then it means your name is registered or written into a book. So, we’re still talking about the same real “book”. If people keep book whether you’ll manage to persuade your girlfriend to marry you, then they are writing the days into a book and keeping a record of time wondering how long it’ll take you to convince your girlfriend. Again, they write something into a real book (Remember it’s an idiomatic
expression). In your last example, (everyone knows you’ve been cooking the books for years) the word “book” is used in its 1st meaning. It means something we read.
The verb cook is used in a different meaning, and in that sense, cook means to falsify. If you cook books, it means you are changing the records of your company (just
like Cem Uzan, he’s been cooking the books.) (Again,this is an idiomatic expression)
As you see, although there are three distinct/different entries for the word “book”, there is only one main meaning. The other two just serve different grammatical
functions, and their meanings relate to the original one in someway. 

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